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Bu maddenin içeriğinin Türkçeleştirilmesi veya doğrultusunda düzeltilmesi gerekmektedir. Bu maddedeki yazım ve noktalama yanlışları ya da anlatım bozuklukları giderilmelidir. (Yabancı sözcükler yerine Türkçe karşılıklarının kullanılması, karakter hatalarının düzeltilmesi, dilbilgisi hatalarının düzeltilmesi vs.) Düzenleme yapıldıktan sonra bu şablon kaldırılmalıdır. |
Bilgisayar bilimi tarihi, modern dijital bilgisayarların ortaya çıkışından çok daha öncelere dayanmaktadır. Abaküs gibi sabit sayısal görevleri hesaplamak için kullanılan makineler, antik çağlardan beri çarpma ve bölme gibi hesaplamalara yardımcı olmuştur. Hesaplamalar yapmaya yaran algoritmalar, antik çağlardan beri, hatta gelişmiş bilgi işlem ekipmanlarının geliştirilmesinden önce bile var olmuştur.
Wilhelm Schickard, 1623'te ilk çalışan tasarladı. 1673'te Gottfried Leibniz, "Basamaklı Hesaplayıcı" adını verdiği dijital bir mekanik hesap makinesi icat etti. Diğer nedenlerin yanı sıra, ikili sayı sistemini belgeleyen ilk bilgisayar bilimcisi ve bilgi teorisyeni olarak düşünülebilir. 1820'de her gün ofis ortamında kullanılabilecek kadar güçlü ve güvenilir ilk hesaplama makinesi olan basitleştirilmiş icat ettiğinde mekanik hesap makinesi endüstrisini başlatmaya karar verdi.
Charles Babbage ilk otomatik mekanik hesap makinesinin tasarımına başladı, Fark Makinesi, 1822'de, sonunda ona ilk programlanabilir mekanik hesap makinesi olan Analitik Makine fikrini verdi. Bu makineyi 1834'te geliştirmeye başladı ve iki yıldan daha az bir sürede, modern bilgisayarın göze çarpan özelliklerinin birçoğunu çizmişti. Önemli bir fark, bir kart sisteminin benimsenmesiydi, onu programlanabilir hale getirdi.
1843'te Ada Lovelace'ın yazdığı Analitik Motor hakkındaki bir makalenin çevirisi sırasında, Bernoulli sayılarını hesaplamak için yazdığı algoritma, ilk yayınlanmış algoritma olarak kabul edilir.Herman Hollerith, 1885'te istatistiksel bilgileri işlemek için delikli kartlar kullanan tabloyu icat etti; nihayetinde şirketi IBM'in bir parçası oldu.
Önceki çalışmalardan habersiz olsa da, 1909'da , tarihte mekanik analitik makinelerin ikincisini yayınladı.
Babbage'ın imkansız hayalinden yüz yıl sonra, 1937'de, , IBM'i her türlü delikli kart ekipmanı üretmesi ve aynı zamanda kendi dev programlanabilir hesap makinesi ASCC / Harvard Mark I'i geliştirmek için ikna etti. Aiken'in bu hesap makinesi, Babbage'ın kendi kart ve merkezi bilgi işlem birimini kullanan Analitik Motoruna dayanıyordu. Makine bittiğinde, Babbage'ın "imkansız rüyası" artık gerçek olmuştu.
1940'larda, ve ENIAC gibi yeni ve daha güçlü bilgi işlem makineleri geliştirildikçe, bilgisayar terimi daha çok makinelere atıfta bulunmaya başladı. Bilgisayarların sadece matematiksel hesaplamalar için değil, daha fazlası için kullanılabileceği netleştikçe, bilgisayar bilimleri alanı, genel anlamda hesaplama yapabilmeye de olanak sağlayacak bir şekilde genişledi.
IBM 1945 yılında New York şehrinde Columbia Üniversitesi'nde "Watson Bilimsel Hesaplama Laboratuvarı"nı kurdu.
The renovated fraternity house on Manhattan's West Side was IBM's first laboratory devoted to pure science. The lab is the forerunner of IBM's Research Division, which today operates research facilities around the world. Ultimately, the close relationship between IBM and the university was instrumental in the emergence of a new scientific discipline, with Columbia offering one of the first academic-credit courses in computer science in 1946. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s. The world's first computer science degree program, the , began at the University of Cambridge in 1953. The first computer science department in the United States was formed at in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights.
Although many initially believed it was impossible that computers themselves could actually be a scientific field of study, in the late fifties it gradually became accepted among the greater academic population. It is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM (short for International Business Machines) released the IBM 704 and later the IBM 709 computers, which were widely used during the exploration period of such devices. "Still, working with the IBM [computer] was frustrating […] if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again". During the late 1950s, the computer science discipline was very much in its developmental stages, and such issues were commonplace.
The concept of a was proposed by in 1925. John Bardeen and Walter Brattain, while working under William Shockley at Bell Labs, built the first working transistor, the , in 1947. In 1953, the University of Manchester built the first , called the . However, early were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications. The metal–oxide–silicon field-effect transistor (MOSFET, or MOS transistor) was invented by and at Bell Labs in 1959. It was the first truly compact transistor that could be and for a wide range of uses. The MOSFET made it possible to build chips, leading to what is known as the or .
Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of . Modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near- user base. Initially, computers were quite costly, and some degree of humanitarian aid was needed for efficient use—in part from professional computer operators. As computer adoption became more widespread and affordable, less human assistance was needed for common usage.
Önemli keşifler
The philosopher of computing noted three Great Insights of Computer Science:
- Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's, George Boole's, Alan Turing's, Claude Shannon's, and Samuel Morse's insight: there are only two objects that a computer has to deal with in order to represent "anything".All the information about any computable problem can be represented using only 0 and 1 (or any other bistable pair that can flip-flop between two easily distinguishable states, such as "on/off", "magnetized/de-magnetized", "high-voltage/low-voltage", etc.)
- Alan Turing's insight: there are only five actions that a computer has to perform in order to do "anything"
- Every algorithm can be expressed in a language for a computer consisting of only five basic instructions:
- move left one location;
- move right one location;
- read symbol at current location;
- print 0 at current location;
- print 1 at current location.
- Every algorithm can be expressed in a language for a computer consisting of only five basic instructions:
Eğitim
Computer Science, known by its near synonyms, Computing, Computer Studies, Information Technology (IT) and Information and Computing Technology (ICT), has been taught in UK schools since the days of , and but usually to a select few students. In 1981, the BBC produced a and and Computer Studies became common for GCE students (11–16-year-old), and Computer Science to A level students. Its importance was recognised, and it became a compulsory part of the , for Key Stage 3 & 4. In September 2014 it became an entitlement for all pupils over the age of 4.
In the US, with 14,000 school districts deciding the curriculum, provision was fractured. According to a 2010 report by the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) and (CSTA), only 14 out of 50 states have adopted significant education standards for high school computer science.
Israel, New Zealand, and South Korea have included computer science in their national secondary education curricula, and several others are following.
Yapay Zekâ
Artificial intelligence (AI) aims to or is required to synthesize goal-orientated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation, learning, and communication found in humans and animals. From its origins in and in the (1956), artificial intelligence research has been necessarily cross-disciplinary, drawing on areas of expertise such as , , , , , , and . AI is associated in the popular mind with , but the main field of practical application has been as an embedded component in areas of , which require computational understanding. The starting point in the late 1940s was Alan Turing's question "Can computers think?", and the question remains effectively unanswered, although the is still used to assess computer output on the scale of human intelligence. But the automation of evaluative and predictive tasks has been increasingly successful as a substitute for human monitoring and intervention in domains of computer application involving complex real-world data.
Ayrıca bakınız
Notlar
- ^ The word "anything" is written in quotation marks because there are things that computers cannot do. One example is: to answer the question if an arbitrary given computer program will eventually finish or run forever (the ).
Kaynakça
- ^ . cbi.umn.edu. 9 Ocak 2007 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 28 Aralık 2016.
- ^ "Wilhelm Schickard – Ein Computerpionier" (PDF) (Almanca). 19 Eylül 2020 tarihinde kaynağından (PDF). Erişim tarihi: 22 Mayıs 2020.
- ^ Keates, Fiona (25 Haziran 2012). . The Repository. The Royal Society. 29 Haziran 2012 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 22 Mayıs 2020.
- ^ . 30 Ağustos 2019 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 11 Mayıs 2020.
- ^ a b Anthony Hyman (1982). Charles Babbage, pioneer of the computer.
- ^ . 10 Şubat 2006 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 4 Mayıs 2006.
- ^ Brian Randell, p. 187, 1975
- ^ The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) was founded in 1947.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1945". Ibm.com. 5 Ocak 2019 tarihinde kaynağından . Erişim tarihi: 19 Mart 2019.
- ^ "IBM100 – The Origins of Computer Science". Ibm.com. 15 Eylül 1995. 5 Ocak 2019 tarihinde kaynağından . Erişim tarihi: 19 Mart 2019.
- ^ (2000). (PDF). Encyclopedia of Computer Science. 25 Mayıs 2006 tarihinde kaynağından (PDF) arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 22 Mayıs 2020.
- ^ "Some EDSAC statistics". University of Cambridge. 3 Eylül 2007 tarihinde kaynağından . Erişim tarihi: 19 Kasım 2011.
- ^ . Purdue Computer Science. 1 Temmuz 2002. 6 Ekim 2014 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 12 Aralık 2014.
- ^ . www.computerhistory.org. 8 Haziran 2008 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 28 Aralık 2016.
- ^ a b (1984). Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Doubleday. ISBN .
- ^ a b Tedre, Matti (2014). The Science of Computing: Shaping a Discipline. Taylor and Francis / CRC Press.
- ^ . Computerhistory.org. 20 Nisan 2011 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 7 Temmuz 2013.
- ^ (PDF). Computer History Museum. March 4, 2016 tarihinde kaynağından (PDF) arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 12 Aralık 2014.
- ^ Lee, Thomas H. (2003). The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits (PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN . 9 Aralık 2019 tarihinde kaynağından (PDF). Erişim tarihi: 22 Mayıs 2020.
- ^ Puers, Robert; Baldi, Livio; Voorde, Marcel Van de; Nooten, Sebastiaan E. van (2017). Nanoelectronics: Materials, Devices, Applications, 2 Volumes. . s. 14. ISBN . 3 Mart 2020 tarihinde kaynağından . Erişim tarihi: 22 Mayıs 2020.
- ^ Lavington, Simon (1998), A History of Manchester Computers (2 bas.), Swindon: The British Computer Society, ss. 34-35
- ^ a b Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016). Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century. . ss. 165-167. ISBN . 3 Mart 2020 tarihinde kaynağından . Erişim tarihi: 22 Mayıs 2020.
- ^ . The Silicon Engine. Computer History Museum. 27 Ekim 2019 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 22 Mayıs 2020.
- ^ Lojek, Bo (2007). History of Semiconductor Engineering. . ss. 321-3. ISBN .
- ^ "Who Invented the Transistor?". Computer History Museum. 4 Aralık 2013. 13 Aralık 2013 tarihinde kaynağından . Erişim tarihi: 20 Temmuz 2019.
- ^ Hittinger, William C. (1973). "Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Technology". Scientific American. 229 (2). ss. 48-59. Bibcode:1973SciAm.229b..48H. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0873-48. ISSN 0036-8733. JSTOR 24923169.
- ^ Fossum, Jerry G.; Trivedi, Vishal P. (2013). Fundamentals of Ultra-Thin-Body MOSFETs and FinFETs. Cambridge University Press. s. vii. ISBN . 3 Mart 2020 tarihinde kaynağından . Erişim tarihi: 22 Mayıs 2020.
- ^ Malmstadt, Howard V.; Enke, Christie G.; Crouch, Stanley R. (1994). Making the Right Connections: Microcomputers and Electronic Instrumentation. American Chemical Society. s. 389. ISBN . 30 Aralık 2019 tarihinde kaynağından . Erişim tarihi: 22 Mayıs 2020.
The relative simplicity and low power requirements of MOSFETs have fostered today's microcomputer revolution.
- ^ "Timeline of Computer History". Computer History Museum. 2 Ekim 2015 tarihinde kaynağından . Erişim tarihi: 24 Kasım 2015.
- ^ Rapaport, William J. (20 Eylül 2013). . State University of New York at Buffalo. 14 Şubat 2001 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 22 Mayıs 2020.
- ^ B. Jack Copeland, 2012. Alan Turing's Electronic Brain: The Struggle to Build the ACE, the World's Fastest Computer. OUP Oxford. p. 107. .
- ^ Burns, Judith (3 Nisan 2016). "Computer science A-level 1970s style". 9 Şubat 2019 tarihinde kaynağından . Erişim tarihi: 9 Şubat 2019.
- ^ Jones, Michael (Ekim 1915). (PDF). Winston Churchill Memorial Trust. 22 Ekim 2016 tarihinde kaynağından (PDF) arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 9 Şubat 2019.
- ^ "Computer Science: Not Just an Elective Anymore". Education Week. 25 Şubat 2014. 1 Aralık 2016 tarihinde kaynağından . Erişim tarihi: 22 Mayıs 2020.
- ^ Wilson, Cameron; Sudol, Leigh Ann; Stephenson, Chris; Stehlik, Mark (2010). (PDF). ACM. 12 Haziran 2013 tarihinde kaynağından (PDF) arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 22 Mayıs 2020.
- ^ "A is for algorithm". The Economist. 26 Nisan 2014. 18 Ekim 2017 tarihinde kaynağından . Erişim tarihi: 22 Mayıs 2020.
- ^ (PDF). 8 Mayıs 2013 tarihinde kaynağından (PDF) arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 20 Temmuz 2015.
- ^ "Adding Coding to the Curriculum". The New York Times. 23 Mart 2014. 9 Haziran 2020 tarihinde kaynağından . Erişim tarihi: 22 Mayıs 2020.
Konuyla ilgili yayınlar
Eserler
- Collier, Bruce (1990). (İngilizce). Garland Publishing Inc. ISBN . 20 Ocak 2007 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi.
Makaleler
- Peter J. Denning. Bilgisayar bilimi bir bilim midir?, ACM'nin İletişimi, Nisan 2005.
- Peter J. Denning, Bilgisayar öğretiminde büyük prensipler, Bilgisayar Bilimi Eğitimi Teknik Sempozyumu, 2004.
- Bilgisayar bilimi için araştırma değerlendirmesi, Informatics Europe (PDF)18 Ekim 2017 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde .. "Bilgisayar bilimi için araştırma değerlendirmesi Bertrand Meyer, Christine Choppy, Jan van Leeuwen and Jorgen Staunstrup, vol. 52, nu. 4, syf. 31–34, Nisan 2009.
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Bu maddenin iceriginin Turkcelestirilmesi veya Turkce dilbilgisi ve kurallari dogrultusunda duzeltilmesi gerekmektedir Bu maddedeki yazim ve noktalama yanlislari ya da anlatim bozukluklari giderilmelidir Yabanci sozcukler yerine Turkce karsiliklarinin kullanilmasi karakter hatalarinin duzeltilmesi dilbilgisi hatalarinin duzeltilmesi vs Duzenleme yapildiktan sonra bu sablon kaldirilmalidir Bilgisayar bilimi tarihi modern dijital bilgisayarlarin ortaya cikisindan cok daha oncelere dayanmaktadir Abakus gibi sabit sayisal gorevleri hesaplamak icin kullanilan makineler antik caglardan beri carpma ve bolme gibi hesaplamalara yardimci olmustur Hesaplamalar yapmaya yaran algoritmalar antik caglardan beri hatta gelismis bilgi islem ekipmanlarinin gelistirilmesinden once bile var olmustur Bilgisayarin babasi olarak da adlandirilan Charles Babbage Wilhelm Schickard 1623 te ilk calisan tasarladi 1673 te Gottfried Leibniz Basamakli Hesaplayici adini verdigi dijital bir mekanik hesap makinesi icat etti Diger nedenlerin yani sira ikili sayi sistemini belgeleyen ilk bilgisayar bilimcisi ve bilgi teorisyeni olarak dusunulebilir 1820 de her gun ofis ortaminda kullanilabilecek kadar guclu ve guvenilir ilk hesaplama makinesi olan basitlestirilmis icat ettiginde mekanik hesap makinesi endustrisini baslatmaya karar verdi Charles Babbage ilk otomatik mekanik hesap makinesinin tasarimina basladi Fark Makinesi 1822 de sonunda ona ilk programlanabilir mekanik hesap makinesi olan Analitik Makine fikrini verdi Bu makineyi 1834 te gelistirmeye basladi ve iki yildan daha az bir surede modern bilgisayarin goze carpan ozelliklerinin bircogunu cizmisti Onemli bir fark bir kart sisteminin benimsenmesiydi onu programlanabilir hale getirdi 1843 te Ada Lovelace in yazdigi Analitik Motor hakkindaki bir makalenin cevirisi sirasinda Bernoulli sayilarini hesaplamak icin yazdigi algoritma ilk yayinlanmis algoritma olarak kabul edilir Herman Hollerith 1885 te istatistiksel bilgileri islemek icin delikli kartlar kullanan tabloyu icat etti nihayetinde sirketi IBM in bir parcasi oldu Onceki calismalardan habersiz olsa da 1909 da tarihte mekanik analitik makinelerin ikincisini yayinladi Babbage in imkansiz hayalinden yuz yil sonra 1937 de IBM i her turlu delikli kart ekipmani uretmesi ve ayni zamanda kendi dev programlanabilir hesap makinesi ASCC Harvard Mark I i gelistirmek icin ikna etti Aiken in bu hesap makinesi Babbage in kendi kart ve merkezi bilgi islem birimini kullanan Analitik Motoruna dayaniyordu Makine bittiginde Babbage in imkansiz ruyasi artik gercek olmustu 1940 larda ve ENIAC gibi yeni ve daha guclu bilgi islem makineleri gelistirildikce bilgisayar terimi daha cok makinelere atifta bulunmaya basladi Bilgisayarlarin sadece matematiksel hesaplamalar icin degil daha fazlasi icin kullanilabilecegi netlestikce bilgisayar bilimleri alani genel anlamda hesaplama yapabilmeye de olanak saglayacak bir sekilde genisledi IBM 1945 yilinda New York sehrinde Columbia Universitesi nde Watson Bilimsel Hesaplama Laboratuvari ni kurdu The renovated fraternity house on Manhattan s West Side was IBM s first laboratory devoted to pure science The lab is the forerunner of IBM s Research Division which today operates research facilities around the world Ultimately the close relationship between IBM and the university was instrumental in the emergence of a new scientific discipline with Columbia offering one of the first academic credit courses in computer science in 1946 Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s The world s first computer science degree program the began at the University of Cambridge in 1953 The first computer science department in the United States was formed at in 1962 Since practical computers became available many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights Ada Lovelace genellikle bilgisayarda islemeye yonelik ilk algoritmanin yayinlanmasiyla iliskilendirilir Although many initially believed it was impossible that computers themselves could actually be a scientific field of study in the late fifties it gradually became accepted among the greater academic population It is the now well known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time IBM short for International Business Machines released the IBM 704 and later the IBM 709 computers which were widely used during the exploration period of such devices Still working with the IBM computer was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction the program would crash and you would have to start the whole process over again During the late 1950s the computer science discipline was very much in its developmental stages and such issues were commonplace The concept of a was proposed by in 1925 John Bardeen and Walter Brattain while working under William Shockley at Bell Labs built the first working transistor the in 1947 In 1953 the University of Manchester built the first called the However early were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass production basis which limited them to a number of specialised applications The metal oxide silicon field effect transistor MOSFET or MOS transistor was invented by and at Bell Labs in 1959 It was the first truly compact transistor that could be and for a wide range of uses The MOSFET made it possible to build chips leading to what is known as the or Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of Modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology from usage only by experts and professionals to a near user base Initially computers were quite costly and some degree of humanitarian aid was needed for efficient use in part from professional computer operators As computer adoption became more widespread and affordable less human assistance was needed for common usage Onemli kesiflerThe philosopher of computing noted three Great Insights of Computer Science Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz s George Boole s Alan Turing s Claude Shannon s and Samuel Morse s insight there are only two objects that a computer has to deal with in order to represent anything All the information about any computable problem can be represented using only 0 and 1 or any other bistable pair that can flip flop between two easily distinguishable states such as on off magnetized de magnetized high voltage low voltage etc Alan Turing s insight there are only five actions that a computer has to perform in order to do anything Every algorithm can be expressed in a language for a computer consisting of only five basic instructions move left one location move right one location read symbol at current location print 0 at current location print 1 at current location dd EgitimComputer Science known by its near synonyms Computing Computer Studies Information Technology IT and Information and Computing Technology ICT has been taught in UK schools since the days of and but usually to a select few students In 1981 the BBC produced a and and Computer Studies became common for GCE students 11 16 year old and Computer Science to A level students Its importance was recognised and it became a compulsory part of the for Key Stage 3 amp 4 In September 2014 it became an entitlement for all pupils over the age of 4 In the US with 14 000 school districts deciding the curriculum provision was fractured According to a 2010 report by the Association for Computing Machinery ACM and CSTA only 14 out of 50 states have adopted significant education standards for high school computer science Israel New Zealand and South Korea have included computer science in their national secondary education curricula and several others are following Yapay ZekaArtificial intelligence AI aims to or is required to synthesize goal orientated processes such as problem solving decision making environmental adaptation learning and communication found in humans and animals From its origins in and in the 1956 artificial intelligence research has been necessarily cross disciplinary drawing on areas of expertise such as and AI is associated in the popular mind with but the main field of practical application has been as an embedded component in areas of which require computational understanding The starting point in the late 1940s was Alan Turing s question Can computers think and the question remains effectively unanswered although the is still used to assess computer output on the scale of human intelligence But the automation of evaluative and predictive tasks has been increasingly successful as a substitute for human monitoring and intervention in domains of computer application involving complex real world data Ayrica bakinizYazilim muhendisligi tarihi En buyuk yazilim sirketleri Yazilim Donanim Bilgisayar bilimi Bilgi teknolojisi Yazilim muhendisligi Yazilim gelistirici Bilisim Insan bilgisayar etkilesimi Grafik Tasarim Yazilim tasarimi Yazilim motoru Yapay zeka Yapay genel zeka TeknolojiNotlar The word anything is written in quotation marks because there are things that computers cannot do One example is to answer the question if an arbitrary given computer program will eventually finish or run forever the Kaynakca cbi umn edu 9 Ocak 2007 tarihinde kaynagindan arsivlendi Erisim tarihi 28 Aralik 2016 Wilhelm Schickard Ein Computerpionier PDF Almanca 19 Eylul 2020 tarihinde kaynagindan PDF Erisim tarihi 22 Mayis 2020 Keates Fiona 25 Haziran 2012 The Repository The Royal Society 29 Haziran 2012 tarihinde kaynagindan arsivlendi Erisim tarihi 22 Mayis 2020 30 Agustos 2019 tarihinde kaynagindan arsivlendi Erisim tarihi 11 Mayis 2020 a b Anthony Hyman 1982 Charles Babbage pioneer of the computer 10 Subat 2006 tarihinde kaynagindan arsivlendi Erisim tarihi 4 Mayis 2006 Brian Randell p 187 1975 The Association for Computing Machinery ACM was founded in 1947 IBM Archives 1945 Ibm com 5 Ocak 2019 tarihinde kaynagindan Erisim tarihi 19 Mart 2019 IBM100 The Origins of Computer Science Ibm com 15 Eylul 1995 5 Ocak 2019 tarihinde kaynagindan Erisim tarihi 19 Mart 2019 2000 PDF Encyclopedia of Computer Science 25 Mayis 2006 tarihinde kaynagindan PDF arsivlendi Erisim tarihi 22 Mayis 2020 Some EDSAC statistics University of Cambridge 3 Eylul 2007 tarihinde kaynagindan Erisim tarihi 19 Kasim 2011 Purdue Computer Science 1 Temmuz 2002 6 Ekim 2014 tarihinde kaynagindan arsivlendi Erisim tarihi 12 Aralik 2014 www computerhistory org 8 Haziran 2008 tarihinde kaynagindan arsivlendi Erisim tarihi 28 Aralik 2016 a b 1984 Hackers Heroes of the Computer Revolution Doubleday ISBN 978 0 385 19195 1 a b Tedre Matti 2014 The Science of Computing Shaping a Discipline Taylor and Francis CRC Press Computerhistory org 20 Nisan 2011 tarihinde kaynagindan arsivlendi Erisim tarihi 7 Temmuz 2013 PDF Computer History Museum March 4 2016 tarihinde kaynagindan PDF arsivlendi Erisim tarihi 12 Aralik 2014 Lee 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